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1 This article was originally published in the Encyclopedia of Human Behavior published by Elsevier, and the attached copy is provided by Elsevier for the author's benefit and for the benefit of the author's institution, for non-commercial research and educational use including without limitation use in instruction at your institution, sending it to specific colleagues who you know, and providing a copy to your institution s administrator. All other uses, reproduction and distribution, including without limitation commercial reprints, selling or licensing copies or access, or posting on open internet sites, your personal or institution s website or repository, are prohibited. For exceptions, permission may be sought for such use through Elsevier's permissions site at: Shannahoff-Khalsa D. (2012) Meditation: The Science and the Art. In: V.S. Ramachandran (ed.) The Encyclopedia of Human Behavior, vol. 2, pp Academic Press Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.

2 Meditation: The Science and the Art D Shannahoff-Khalsa, University of California San Diego, La Jolla, CA, USA ã 2012 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved. Glossary Chakras An energy center of consciousness associated with the seven nerve centers (nerve plexuses) of the body and one with the psychoelectromagnetic field of the body, called the aura. Kundalini Comes from the word kundal, meaning coiled energy and the creative potential of an individual. Meditation The art and science of how to manipulate the thought waves to achieve a state of thoughtlessness, wherein the individual experiences both existence and nonexistence simultaneously, and where the field of consciousness then becomes a novel sensory experience, wherein new levels of awareness and new skills in the mental realm are developed. Pranayama The yogic system of meditative breathing exercises. Yoga An ancient science and art where the finite experiences the infinity consciously within oneself. Introduction According to the Oxford English Dictionary, the word meditation can have at least two meanings that are relevant here: (1) The action or practice of profound spiritual or religious reflection or contemplation; spec. a variety of private devotional exercise consisting of the continuous application of the mind to the contemplation of a particular religious text, truth, mystery, or object. Or (2) In Buddhism, Yoga, and other systems of religious or spiritual discipline: a practice of the mind (and body) aimed at achieving the eradication of rational or worldly mental activity. The latter definition is closer to the subject and intention for this article. A note on the historical origin, a brief overview of the scientific evidence supporting the efficacy of meditation, and a description of some techniques and how they can be applied are covered. Also, the yogic concept of consciousness along with the eradication of rational or worldly mental activity as noted in the second definition is briefly discussed. The major focus of this article is on the techniques discovered in the original system of yoga referred to here as Kundalini Yoga as taught by Yogi Bhajan, which was an integrated science before various individuals, groups, or lineages proceeded to selectively fractionate the system, or were later left with only the remnants of the original ancient teachings as a result of natural catastrophes and nomadic invasions. Descriptions of some of the other popular meditation techniques that are now taught are also included. The exact time of the historical origins of the discovery of yogic meditation techniques remains controversial. However, the evolution of this ancient science was believed to have its origins long before the advent of the formal religions. This suggests that the initial experiential efforts and much of the experimental study that led to the development of these meditation techniques may go back to at least 7000 B.C.E. The people who participated in this ancient process of discovery, called the rishis (people of power), are thought to have lived in the region of the Indus river valley. This ancient society is now called the Indus-Sarasvati civilization, which is believed to be the first civilization in the Indian subcontinent. The Science of Meditation The Western experimental scientific literature on meditation started in the 1960s. In 2005, the National Institutes of Health and National Center for Complementary and Alternative Medicine funded a systematic review of the scientific literature that was published in This is the most comprehensive systematic review to date and it was published as Meditation Practices for Health: State of the Research. This review was conducted by the University of Alberta Evidence-based Practice Center. Comprehensive searches were conducted in 17 electronic databases up to September Other sources of potentially relevant studies included hand searches, reference tracking, contacting experts, and gray literature searches. The studies had to be in English, be comparative, focus on any type of meditation practice, include more than 10 adults, and provide quantitative data on health-related outcomes. Studies on the different meditation techniques were then included for analysis in one of five broad categories, which were defined as mantra meditation, mindfulness meditation, yoga, Tai Chi, and Qi Gong. Evidence on the state of the research was provided from 813 predominantly poor-quality studies. Physiological and neuropsychological effects of meditation practices were also evaluated in 312 poor-quality studies. Meta-analyses of results from 55 studies indicated that some meditation practices produced significant changes in healthy participants. The authors conclude Many uncertainties surround the practice of meditation. Scientific research on meditation practices does not appear to have a common theoretical perspective and is characterized by poor methodological quality. Firm conclusions on the effects of meditation practices in healthcare cannot be drawn based on the available evidence. Future research on meditation practices must be more rigorous in the design and execution of studies and in the analysis and reporting of results. However, this summation statement does not imply that high-quality and well-controlled studies demonstrating important health benefits for ill populations or unique findings in the healthy have not been published. The aforementioned conclusion is a generality. It provides a statement that is a mean of the published studies. The problem with this review is analogous to an attempt to make a 576

3 Meditation: The Science and the Art 577 description of all the organisms in the sea. There are so many different species that it is difficult to conclude much more than that there are simply millions of different species in the sea. In meditation research, no two studies have been the same, that is, attempts to replicate previous findings per se have been almost nonexistent. There are variations in the techniques studied, age ranges, skill levels, healthy versus disordered populations, the parameters measured including variations of the scale(s) used, types of control group if any, length of the studies, testing conditions, etc. Also, this type of analysis does not focus on, or extract, the more unique and important findings of single studies. However, several unique meditation studies that have shown important results are described here. Lazar and colleagues studied the brain s physical structure using magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) to assess cortical thickness. They looked at 20 subjects who had long-term experience with Insight meditation, which involves a focus of attention on internal experiences. They found that brain regions, including the prefrontal cortex and right anterior insula, and other areas associated with attention, interoception, and sensory processing were thicker in the meditation practitioners compared to controls. They also found that differences in prefrontal cortical thickness were more pronounced in older practitioners, suggesting that meditation might offset age-related cortical thinning. Shannahoff-Khalsa and colleagues compared a unique multipart disorder-specific Kundalini Yoga meditation protocol for treating obsessive compulsive disorder patients against the classic mindfulness meditation technique and the relaxation response for a matched patient group. This was a randomized controlled trial, and after 3 months, the control group showed no efficacy on any of the six psychological measures used to assess psychological symptom severity; however, the Kundalini Yoga group showed a significant improvement on all six scales. The groups were then combined using the efficacious protocol, and after a 1-year trial, the patients showed a 71% improvement on the Yale-Brown Obsessive Compulsive Scale, the current gold standard for psychological assessment of obsessive compulsive symptoms. To date, this clinical trial remains the most effective treatment result for all treatment modalities for this disorder. Tang and colleagues studied a traditional Chinese medicine meditation technique called integrative body mind training (IBMT). They report that 11 h of IBMT increases fractional anisotropy, an index indicating the integrity and efficiency of white matter in the corona radiata, an important white matter tract connecting the anterior cingulated cortex to other structures. They conclude that IBMT could provide a means for improving self-regulation and perhaps reducing or preventing various mental disorders. Finally, Brefczynski-Lewis and colleagues studied concentration meditation in which sustained attention is focused on an object such as a small visual stimulus or the breath. Using functional MRI, with age-matched participants, they found activation of a network of brain regions typically involved in sustained attention that showed an inverted u-shaped curve in which expert meditators had more activation than novices. They conclude that the hours of practice suggest a possible plasticity in these brain mechanisms. Given the potential for new advances in healthy development, prevention, and for treating illnesses, only trivial funding has been allocated to the field. In addition, this article is limited in length and cannot give adequate attention to the more noteworthy findings in the fields of both the basic sciences and clinical sciences. However, there are substantial new scientific insights in the understanding of the dynamics of mind body relations, functions of the brain and peripheral nervous system, the natural endogenous mechanisms that have evolved in humans for the purpose of self-regulation. All these insights were based on the ancient teachings of the rishis. The variety of highly structured techniques described in the following sections suggests that the ancients had developed what may best be called a technology of the mind, and indeed may provide us with very sophisticated insights for understanding the nature of human consciousness and the pathways for mental development. Description of Kundalini Yoga Meditation Techniques The following techniques in this section are all from the original and ancient system of Kundalini Yoga as taught by Yogi Bhajan. From 1969 to 2004, Yogi Bhajan taught openly what had been kept secret for the last 3000 years; previously, it had been transmitted by a few masters to selected disciples. During these 35 years, he taught 5000 different meditation techniques. Selected techniques are provided for their highly structured nature, complexity, and often disorder-specific or other benefits. Prior to being hidden in secrecy, these and many other techniques were practiced by both yogis and householders. In the system of Kundalini Yoga as taught by Yogi Bhajan, there is a mantra that is chanted prior to practice, which is called tuning in. This procedure helps to induce a protected meditative state of mind and helps to keep the system balanced and safe. This mantra is unique and only specific for this system. Technique to Induce a Meditative State: Tuning in Description of the technique: Sit with a straight spine and with the feet flat on the floor if sitting in a chair. Put the hands together at the center of the chest in the prayer pose the palms are pressed together with lbs of pressure between the hands (a mild to medium pressure, nothing intense). The area where the sides of the thumbs touch rests on the sternum with the thumbs pointing up (along the sternum), and the fingers are together and point up and out at a 60 angle to the ground. The eyes are closed and focused at the third eye (imagine a sun rising on the horizon or the equivalent of the point between the eyebrows at the origin of the nose). A mantra is chanted out loud in a 1-1/2 breath cycle. Inhale first through the nose and chant Ong Namo with equal emphasis on the Ong and the Namo. Then immediately follow with a half-breath inhalation through the mouth and chant Guru Dev Namo with approximately equal emphasis on each word. (The O in Ong and Namo is a long o sound; Dev sounds like Dave, with a long a sound.) The practitioner should focus on the experience of the vibrations these sounds create on the upper palate and throughout the cranium while letting the mind be carried by the sounds into a new and pleasant mental space. This should be repeated a minimum of three times.

4 578 Meditation: The Science and the Art The first meditation technique is included here because two clinical trials using it have shown significant efficacy in the treatment of obsessive compulsive disorder (OCD) patients. This technique has also been studied using whole-head 148- channel magnetoencephalograpy brain imagining. Meditation Technique for Treating OCD Description of the technique: Sit with a straight spine in a comfortable position, either with the legs crossed while sitting on the floor or in a straight back chair with both feet flat on the ground. Close the eyes. Use the right thumb tip to block the end of the right nostril, the other fingers pointing up straight. Allow the arm to relax (the elbow should not be sticking up or out to the side creating unnecessary tension). A small cork or secure plug can also be used to plug the right nostril. Inhale very slowly and deeply through the left nostril, hold the breath in for a long time, exhale out slowly and completely through the same nostril only (left nostril), and hold the breath out for a long time. Every effort should be made to keep the four phases of the breath cycle of equal duration. The mental focus should be on the sound of the breath. Continue this pattern with a maximum time of 31 min for each sitting. Initially, begin with a comfortable rate and time, but where the effort presents a fair challenge for each phase of the breath. This technique should be perfected and has its greatest clinical benefits when the complete breath cycle is one minute in duration, each section of the cycle lasting exactly 15 s. This rate of respiration for the full 31 min can be achieved by most individuals within 5 6 months with daily discipline. The ancient yogis claimed that 90 days of 31 min per day using the perfected rate of one breath/min with the four 15 s per phase would completely eliminate all obsessive compulsive disorders. The balance of equal times for the four phases is akey with this technique. Gyan Mudra Kriya This meditation was taught for when you do not know what to do, and it is claimed to be excellent for treating anxiety disorders and inducing a clear and stable state of mind. The claim is that it is very simple, but very powerful if done correctly, that it coordinates both brain hemispheres, gives powerful insight, solves many complications, and coordinates the mystery of the spiritual phenomena into the mastery of the three bodies (physical, mental, and spiritual). Description of the technique: Sit straight, rest the back of one hand in the palm of the other with the thumbs crossing each other in one palm. If the right hand rests in the palm of the left hand, the left thumb rests in the right palm and the right thumb then crosses over the back of the left thumb. Either this hand orientation is acceptable or the reverse with the left hand resting in the palm of the right hand and then the right thumb is in the left palm covered by the left thumb. The hands are placed at the heart center level about two to three inches in front of the chest, but the hands do not touch the chest and the elbows are resting down against the ribs. The eyes are open but focused on the tip of the nose (the tip/end point that you cannot see). The breathing pattern has four parts that repeat in sequence: first, inhale and exhale slowly through the nose only, and then with the second breath, inhale through the mouth with the lips puckered as if to kiss or make a whistle; after the inhalation, relax the lips and exhale through the mouth slowly; for the third breath pattern, inhale through the nose and exhale through the mouth (the lips are not puckered) the fourth breath pattern is inhaling through the puckered lips and exhaling through the nose. Continue this four-part cycle for min. Tershula Kriya An Advanced Technique for Attaining Healing Powers and for Overcoming Phobias This technique was taught for achieving self-mastery and learning to heal others from a distance and it is one of the most advanced techniques in the system of Kundalini Yoga. Yogi Bhajan commented: Tershula Kriya can make you a perfect master. While it presents a challenge for learning, its benefits go far beyond the amelioration of phobias. Description of the technique: Sit in an easy pose. Bring your elbows next to the ribs, forearms extended in front of you, with the hands in front of the heart center area, right over left, palms up. The hands are 10 higher than the elbows. There is no bend in the wrists, the fingertips to the elbows form a straight line. The thumbs are extended out to the side of the hands, the fingertips and palms do not exactly line up, they are slightly offset. The eyes are closed looking at the backs of your eyelids. For the inhale, pull back on the navel and inhale through the nostrils and hold. Mentally repeat the mantra Har Har Wha Hay Guru as long as you are able to retain the breath. While you are doing this, visualize your hands surrounded by white light. For the exhale, exhale through the nostrils, and as you exhale, visualize lightning shooting out from your finger tips. When you have fully exhaled, pull mulbhand (pull in on the rectum, sex organs, and navel) and hold for as long as you can, again mentally repeating the mantra Har Har Wha Hay Guru. The maximum time is 62 min. Other comments by Yogi Bhajan include It has been suggested that this meditation be done in a cool room or at night when the temperature is cooler, because it stimulates the Kundalini directly and generates a great deal of heat in the body. The word Tershula relates to the thunderbolt of Shiva, the ultimate deliverer. Tershula can heal everything. It is a self-healing process. This meditation is for the gunas. It brings the three nervous systems together. It also gives you the ability to heal at a distance, through your touch or through your projection. Many psychological disorders or imbalances in the personality can be cured through practice of this meditation. It is very helpful in getting rid of phobias and especially father phobia. Gan Puttee Kriya A Meditation for Healing the Past, the Present, and the Future Description of the technique: Sit with a straight spine, either on the floor or in a chair. The back of your hands are resting on your knees with the palms facing upward. The eyes are ninetenths closed (one-tenth open, but looking straight ahead into the darkness, not into the light below). Chant from your heart in a natural, relaxed manner, or chant in a steady relaxed

5 Meditation: The Science and the Art 579 monotone. Chant out loud the sound Sa (the a sounds like ah ) and bring your thumb tips and index finger tips together quickly simultaneously; then chant Ta and touch the thumb tips to the middle finger tips; then chant Na and touch the thumb tips to the ring finger tips; next chant Ma and touch the thumb tips to the little finger tips; then chant Ra and touch your thumb tips and index finger tips; next chant Ma and touch the thumb tips to the middle finger tips; then chant Da and touch the thumb tips to the ring finger tips; now chant Sa and touch the thumb tips to the little finger tips; then chant Sa and touch your thumb tips and index finger tips; next chant Say (sounds like the word say with a long a ) and touch the thumb tips to the middle finger tips; then chant So and touch the thumb tips to the ring finger tips; now chant Hung and touch the thumb tips to the little finger tips. Chant at the rate of one sound per second. The thumb tip and finger tips touch with a very light 2 3 lbs of pressure with each connection. This helps to consolidate the circuit created by each thumb finger link. Start with 11 min and slowly work up to 31 min of practice. To finish, remain in the sitting posture and inhale and hold the breath for s while you shake and move every part of your body. Exhale and repeat this two more times to circulate the energy and to break the pattern of tapping, which affects the brain. Immediately proceed with focusing the eyes on the tip of the nose (the end point that you cannot see) and breathe slowly and deeply for 1 min. The sounds used in this meditation are each unique and they have a powerful effect on both the conscious and subconscious mind. The sound Sa gives the mind the ability to expand to the infinite, Ta gives the mind the ability to experience the totality of life, Na gives the mind the ability to conquer death, Ma gives the mind the ability to resurrect, Ra gives the mind the ability to expand in radiance, this sound purifies and energizes, Da gives the mind the ability to establish security on the earth plane, it provides a ground for action, Say gives the totality of experience, So is the personal sense of identity, and Hung is the infinite as a vibrating and real force. Together, So Hung means I am Thou. The unique qualities of this 12-syllable mantra help cleanse and restructure the subconscious mind and heal the conscious mind to ultimately experience the super conscious mind. Medical Meditation for Habituation A Technique for Curing Addictions Description of the technique: Sit either in a chair or on the floor. Straighten the spine and make sure the first six lower vertebrae are locked forward. This means the lower back is pushed forward as if you are at attention. Make fists of both hands and extend the thumbs straight. Place the thumbs on the temples and find the niche where the thumbs just fit. This is the lower anterior portion of the frontal bone above the temporal sphenoidal suture. This place is usually sensitive to the touch, so do not apply pressure per se, simply touching is adequate. Lock the back molars together and keep the lips closed. Vibrate the jaw muscles by alternating the pressure on the molars. A muscle will move in rhythm under the thumbs. Feel it massage the thumbs. Keep the eyes closed and look at the brow point the third eye the point where the top of the nose meets the forehead. Silently vibrate the five primal sounds Sa Ta Na Ma at the brow point (the fifth sound here is the sound ah that is basic to the other four sounds. The effects of each syllable of the mantra have been described earlier in the technique called Gan Puttee Kriya. This mantra is claimed to put one s consciousness through the cycle of infinity, life, death, and rebirth. Continue for 5 7 min and slowly build the practice to a maximum of 31 min. Shabd Kriya A Meditation for Treating Insomnia, Regulating Sleep Stages, Promoting the Growth of Personality, and Mastering the Mental Realm Description of the technique: Sit with a straight spine with both feet flat on the floor. Place the hands in the lap, palms up with the right hand over the left hand. The thumb pads, last joint, are touching together and point forward. Focus the eyes on the tip of the nose with the eyelids half closed. The tip of the nose is the point you cannot actually see, but if you use a finger tip to touch the end of the nose; this is where the eyes are focused. This is not an eyes-crossed posture but may seem like it initially. The sides of the nose will look blurry during the focus, but a real cross-eyed posture makes the sides of the nose appear to balloon up, which is not the correct eye posture. Inhale through the nose only in four equal parts, mentally vibrating the mantra Sa Ta Na Ma (one syllable per part of the 4-part inhale). Hold the breath and mentally vibrate the 4-syllable mantra a total of four times for a total of 16 beats, and then exhale through the nose in two equal parts mentally vibrating the mantra Whahay Guru, one word per part or beat. This equals a 22-part or 22-beat cycle. Continue for at least 15 min and work up to 62 min. When finished, relax completely and go to sleep. One of the caveats with this meditation technique is that it may disrupt sleep for several weeks when it is first practiced, prior to having its healing benefits. The Jupiter Finger Chakra Meditation A Meditation for Abused and Battered Children for Developing a Balanced Psyche This meditation was originally taught by Yogi Bhajan as a meditation for children, but it can also be practiced by adolescents and adults. It was claimed that anyone with past trauma resulting from abuse and victimization will benefit from this practice. Even someone without past trauma supposedly can improve the balance of their personality by its use. This meditation helps to balance the chakras and meridians in the body. It is an excellent meditation technique for children. It will evoke many feelings that have stuck with the individual since childhood. It will help adults get rid of the childhood syndrome, a condition where they cling to something that is already finished. This syndrome can easily ruin and limit anyone s life. Description of the technique: Sit with a straight spine either on the floor or in a chair. Place the left hand on the chest at the heart center with the fingers and thumb pointing toward the right. Use the index (Jupiter) finger of the right hand (keep the other fingers closed in a relaxed fist with the thumb over the other fingers) to touch in sequence the following

6 580 Meditation: The Science and the Art points (1) the middle of the lower lip, (2) the tip (end) of the nose, (3) the outer skin area or edge/corner of the eye socket (the region of the skull bone near the outside of the eye), and (4) a point about three-fourths of an inch above the indent of the nose which is just below the forehead (a point that would be the midpoint between the eyebrows). Chant the following mantra (Sa Ta Na Ma) out loud in sequence with the touching of the respective points. Chant Sa as one touches the lower lip, Ta as one touches the tip of the nose, Na as one touches the outer edge of the eye socket, and Ma as one touches the forehead point. But since there are two eyes and thus two outer edges of the eye socket, the patient alternates sides each time they go up in the sequence. Start by touching the right side first. Each round of touching the points and chanting the mantra through takes about 4 5 s. Keep the eyes closed when doing this meditation. The maximum time is 33 min and it can be practiced for the full time the first time. Younger people may have to start with 11 min or even less. When ending the technique, inhale deeply and hold the breath, then while holding the breath, feel the inner child by self-hypnosis, exhale, inhale, and hypnotize one s self, picture oneself as a child in one s own heart, where the left hand has been resting, concentrate, exhale, inhale, and repeat the picture of one s self, bless that child, be that child, and let the breath go. The Ultimate Pranayam Sodarshan Chakra Kriya The developmental stages of self-realization and awareness experienced through the practice of this technique were in part described by the ancients: I am powerless, my power has been broken, my unstable mind has been stabilized, and my unadorned soul has been adorned. I drink in the Ambrosial Nectar. Within my mind, I utter the Name of the Primal Lord, the source of all virtue. My vision, that You and I are separate, has melted away. I worship the One who is worthy of being worshipped. I trust the One who is worthy of being trusted. Like water into water, I merge into the Lord. I meditate and contemplate the Luminous, Triumphant Lord. I am lovingly absorbed in the Nirvana of God. Yogi Bhajan comments: If you can do this meditation for 62 min to start with, and develop it to the point that you can do it 2 1/2 h per day, it will give you Nao niddhi, athara siddhi or the nine precious virtues and 18 occult powers. And in those 27 total virtues of the world lies the entire universe. When practiced 2 1/2 h every day, it makes a perfect superman out of you. It purifies, it takes care of the human life, and brings together all 27 facets of life and makes a human perfect, saintly, successful, and qualified. This meditation also gives one the Pranic power. This kriya never fails. It can give one all the inner happiness and bring one to a state of ecstasy in life. It will keep all the chakras open so you will not fall into any ditch. It is better to live a life of courage than to live many many years like a coward. Courage is in inner vitality, and if all your chakras are open, you will not be handicapped in vitality. You will get a grip on your life. No matter how bad circumstances are, your intuition will guide your way to happiness, and your vitality shall support you. This pranayama technique, as a single technique, is the ultimate in Kundalini Yoga meditation techniques. Its multiple facets make it a completely balanced technique. When practiced alone, there are no other requirements for other techniques to achieve full human development. For example, the rate of respiration can eventually be reduced to less than one breath per minute during practice. This technique changes one s perception of the self and the world. The practitioner develops a consciousness that becomes the living experience of the timelessness of life, transcending time and space. The negative patterns of the subconscious mind are eliminated. This technique helps to overcome the stumbling blocks of the inner world. It helps to cut through inner darkness, and it eliminates both neurotic and psychotic mental patterns. According to Yogi Bhajan: You are cleaning your subconscious. You can clean it as fast or as slowly as you want. You have to decide how much time you want to devote to getting rid of the fear, anger, insecurity, etc.,... the negative thoughts in your subconscious that block your success and prosperity. Description of the technique: Sit with a straight spine on the floor in a cross-legged position, or on a firm chair with both feet flat on the ground. The lower spine (lumbar region) is pressed forward slightly. This spinal posture signals the nervous system to remain alert by setting a ready mode. The eyes are open and focused at the tip of the nose the end that you cannot see. With eyes focused at the tip, the sides of the nose appear to blur. Some individuals are less able to achieve this eye focus, and practice over time can help to overcome this deficit. This eye position is called Ajna Band, which means mind lock. Focusing the eyes in this way pressurizes the optic nerve and helps to stabilize thought processes. It is a common element with meditation techniques that are used to tranquilize the mind. Initially, the eye muscles may become sore due to a lack of use. The breathing pattern has three phases: 1. Use the right thumb tip to block off the right nostril (close the nostril by covering the end, not by pushing in the side); keep the four fingers of the right hand pointed up straight; and inhale slowly and completely fill the lungs. 2. While holding the breath, begin pumping the navel point in and out for a total of 48 pumps while mentally vibrating the sound Wha Hay Guru 16 times per 48 pumps, with one pump per Wha, one pump per Hay, and one pump per Guru, or 16 3 sounds ¼ 48 pumps. 3. Then, slowly exhale through the right nostril by first closing off the left nostril with the end of the index finger. This three-phase cycle is repeated. (Note that the reverse pattern of inhaling through the right nostril, holding, and exhaling through the left nostril is not performed.) Yogi Bhajan recommended a counting scheme to maintain the exact numbers of pumps and Wha Hay Gurus. For counting 1 16 (Wha Hay Guru s), one (with three pumps), two (with three pumps), three (with three pumps) is counted with the little finger moving slightly three times, four (with three pumps), five (with three pumps), and six (with three pumps) moves the ring finger three times, seven (with three pumps), eight (with three pumps), nine (with three pumps) moves the middle finger three times, ten (with three pumps), eleven (with three pumps), and twelve (with three pumps) moves the index finger three times, thirteen (with three pumps), fourteen (with three pumps), fifteen (with three pumps) moves the thumb slightly for three beats, and sixteen (with three pumps) brings the index finger over to close the left

7 Meditation: The Science and the Art 581 nostril just before exhaling through the right nostril. When ending this meditation, after the last exhale, inhale and hold the breath for 5 10 s and mentally circulate the energy produced; then exhale. Then stretch and shake the entire body for 1 min to complete the exercise. The bija mantra Wha Hay Guru induces a state of great wonder, bliss, and ecstasy, an experience of the totality of the universe, the universal nature of consciousness, and the oneness and unity of creation. Eleven minutes is the first peak of accomplishment, followed by 31 min, 62 min, and 2 h and 31 min. Descriptions of Other Popular Meditation Techniques This section includes five popular meditation techniques called the Mindfulness Meditation, Sahaja Yoga Meditation, Transcendental Meditation, Ujjayi meditation as taught by Swami Sivananda, and Zen Meditation. Other similar meditation techniques are also widely taught, including the Vipassana technique, the Relaxation Response by Herbert Benson, the four Art of Living meditations as taught by Sri Sri Ravi Shankar, and techniques by Swami Muktananda of the Siddha Yoga lineage, Swami Satchidananda of the Integral Yoga Society, Swami Rama of the Himalayan Research Society, and Swami Ramdev of the Divya Yog Mandir Trust. Most of these techniques are common to the Hatha Yoga meditation tradition. Mindfulness Meditation Technique The standard description for this meditation is the following: One can practice Mindfulness Meditation by sitting in an appropriate upright position, cross-legged, and by focusing on the breath or anything else, such as mental and physical processes which help the practitioners to become aware of their present thought patterns and inner state. The practice of Mindfulness Meditation focuses one s attention on one s thoughts, actions, and present moments nonjudgmentally. It does not encourage evaluating or thinking about past actions, nor does it take one s thoughts into the uncertain future. Mindfulness Meditation helps and trains the mind from getting distracted by outside disturbances and enables one to focus one s thoughts and relax the mind. Description of the technique: 1. Find a quiet and comfortable place. Sit in a chair or on the floor with your head, neck, and back straight but not stiff. 2. Try to put aside all thoughts of the past and the future and stay in the present. 3. Become aware of your breathing, focusing on the sensation of air moving in and out of your body as you breathe. Feel your belly rise and fall, the air enter your nostrils and leave your mouth. Pay attention to the way each breath changes and is different. 4. Watch every thought come and go, whether it be a worry, fear, anxiety, or hope. When thoughts come up in your mind, do not ignore or suppress them but simply note them, remain calm, and use your breathing as an anchor. 5. If you find yourself getting carried away in your thoughts, observe where your mind went off to, without judging, and simply return to your breathing. Remember not to be hard on yourself if this happens. 6. As the time comes to a close, sit for a minute or two, becoming aware of where you are. Get up gradually. Sahaja Yoga Meditation as Taught by Shri Mataji Nirmala Devi Shri Mataji Nirmala Devi says on her Web site: You can receive your Self Realization (connection with your Self) while sitting in front of your computer. The only condition is your sincere desire to have it. Description of the technique (extracted from her Web site): During the experience you will keep your left hand with the palm upwards on your lap and place the right palm on various parts of the body on your left side only with a specific sequence (see below), while keeping your eyes closed for the entire duration. This way you will be free of distractions and able to keep your attention inside. The sequence for placing your right hand during the guided meditation is the following (on left side only), first hold it with the palm against the chest at the heart center level, then on the chest below the nipple line, then just above the waist line, then against the side of the neck; for the next three positions, the right hand is held in the middle of the forehead, the back of the head, and then the top of the head. Now, after the end of the meditation, see if you are feeling relaxed and if your thoughts have slowed down or gradually disappeared. This is the first stage of meditation thoughtless awareness where you are fully alert but without any thoughts, in a state of pure and peaceful consciousness. Now see if you can feel a sensation of a gentle cool breeze in your palms and above your head. It might be warm in the beginning which is a sign that your Kundalini energy is purifying your chakras, but it will eventually cool down. You can verify it by placing your left palm 6 12 in. above your head, then trying with the right palm. If you are unable to feel it, you have probably not forgiven everyone. Say again from your heart, Mother, I forgive everyone, a few times and check again if you feel the cool breeze above your head. This is the beginning of a fantastic journey into your own spiritual existence. It is a door opened to a new dimension of your awareness, which you can open and explore. If sustained through regular meditation, you will be able to feel your subtle centers (chakras) as well as the chakras of others on your fingertips, and correct them using your spiritual energy (Kundalini). Transcendental Meditation W Technique Transcendental Meditation, also called the TM technique, was formulated by Maharishi Mahesh Yogi. Some claims about the TM technique are the following: The ordinary thinking process is said to be transcended (or gone beyond) as the awareness gradually settles down and is eventually freed of all mental content, remaining silently awake within itself, and producing a psychophysiological state of restful alertness. These periods are referred to as pure consciousness or transcendental consciousness. Steps in TM Meditation: Step 1, Sit comfortably; Step 2, Close your eyes; Step 3, Engage in effortless mental repetition of a special sound for approximately 20 min, twice daily. Note: The special sound in Step 3 is a Sanskrit mantra(s) that is claimed to be exclusive to the TM tradition. These mantras are taught when a person pays

8 582 Meditation: The Science and the Art for the teachings and the recipient is instructed not to share his or her mantra with others. Ujjayi Pranayam Meditation The ujjayi meditation technique, as described here, along with its claimed attributes is one of at least seven different meditation techniques taught by Swami Sivananda. This technique is a standard practice in many Hatha Yoga traditions. Description of the technique: Sit in your usual asana. Close the mouth. Inhale slowly through both the nostrils in a smooth uniform manner. Retain the breath as long as you can; do it comfortably and then exhale slowly through the left nostril by closing the right nostril with your right thumb. Expand the chest when you inhale. During inhalation, a peculiar sound is produced owing to the partial closing of the glottis. The sound produced during inhalation should be of a mild and uniform pitch. It should be continuous also. This Kumbhaka may be practiced even when walking or standing. Instead of exhaling through the left nostril, you can exhale slowly through both nostrils. Swami Sivananda comments on this technique. This removes the heat in the head. The practitioner becomes very beautiful. The gastric fire is increased. It removes phlegm in the throat. Asthma, consumption and all sorts of pulmonary diseases are cured. All that arise from deficient inhalation of oxygen and diseases of the heart are cured. All works are accomplished by Ujjayi Pranayam. The practitioner is never attacked by diseases of phlegm, nerves, enlargement of the spleen, dyspepsia, dysentery, consumption, cough or fever. Perform Ujjayi to destroy decay and death. Zen Meditation Technique Zen Buddhist meditation originated in India and was introduced to Japan from China in 1191 AD. Sit on the forward third of a chair or a cushion on the floor. Arrange your legs in a position you can maintain comfortably. In the half-lotus position, place your right leg on your left thigh. In the full lotus position, put your feet on opposite thighs. You may also sit simply with your legs tucked in close to your body, but be sure that your weight is distributed on three points: both of your knees on the ground and your buttocks on the round cushion. On a chair, keep your knees apart about the width of your shoulders, feet firmly planted on the floor. Take a deep breath, exhale fully, and take another deep breath, exhaling fully. With proper physical posture, your breathing will flow naturally into your lower abdomen. Breathe naturally, without judgment or trying to breathe a certain way. Keep your attention on your breath while practicing this Zen meditation. When your attention wanders, bring it back to the breath again and again as many times as necessary! Remain as still as possible, following your breath and returning to it whenever thoughts arise. Be fully, vitally present with yourself. Simply do your very best. At the end of your sitting period, gently swing your body from right to left in increasing arcs. Stretch out your legs and be sure they have feeling before standing. Practice easy Zen meditation every day for at least min (or longer) and you will discover for yourself the treasure-house of the timeless life of zazen your very life itself. The Art of the Practice and the Application of the Techniques Today, a majority of people practice meditation techniques for the purpose of achieving a calmer state of mind, reducing stress, and finding inner peace. Some practice to gain the experience of a greater or transcendental awareness. Many also seek a more natural approach to the treatment of psychiatric disorders and psychological issues, and for improving social relationships. However, in addition to self-healing, the ancients devised the science of meditation primarily for the purpose of exploring the unknown realms of the psyche and for mastering the realms of consciousness. They understood the possibility of devising a neurodevelopmental approach to awakening the dormant regions of the brain and developing unique mental powers, or what yogis called the siddhis. The ancients apparently achieved a great understanding for the nature of consciousness. They discovered the chakras, the subtle energy centers that supposedly relate to the eight different levels of consciousness. This is a very foreign area for the western scientist who has at least two primary questions about the nature of consciousness: (1) Can consciousness transcend time and space? and (2) Is consciousness only an epiphenomenon of the brain? The ancients devised a practical and systematic view of consciousness that has eight discrete levels. Yogis viewed the chakras as repositories or centers for psychic or mental energy. They claimed that an individual s consciousness is then determined and affected by the amount of energy and the distribution of activity in the eight centers, and that this is related to the individual s behavior, personality structure, and level of awareness. Ultimately, meditation techniques are supposedly a means of healing the mind and also attaining higher levels of consciousness. In addition to the more subtle nature of the chakras, each chakra also supposedly has a physiological correlate in the body. The first chakra is related to the area of the rectum (sacro-coccygeal plexus); the second chakra to the sex organs (sacral plexus); the third chakra to the navel point region (solar plexus); the fourth chakra to the heart center (cardiac plexus); the fifth chakra to the thyroid and parathyroid or throat center (laryngeal plexus); the sixth chakra, called the third eye, to the activity of the pituitary gland; the seventh chakra, called the crown center, to the pineal gland and cerebral cortex; and the eighth chakra is the aura or the psychoelectromagnetic field that surrounds the body. The intensity of activity in any one chakra supposedly affects one s world perspective, understanding of cause and effect, and source of motivation and desire. An individual who lives mainly in the consciousness of the first chakra is concerned primarily with survival. His or her action and values are based solely on the need to survive. Fears and paranoia coincide with this center, as do instincts, concerns about elimination, destructive sexual activities, and habitual and addictive activities. Blocks and imbalances in this center can lead to a rigid and stubborn mentality and a range of diseases. Second chakra consciousness reflects a mentality directed mainly toward reproduction and sexual activities. Overactivity here leads to sexual neuroses, whether it is in the form of abnormal sexual indulgence or a puritanical and abstinent mentality.

9 Meditation: The Science and the Art 583 A balanced second chakra helps establish a creative and expressive mentality. The third chakra is the center of power, territory, and ego: the Me mentality prevails to the exclusion of the well-being of others. This center is the source of physical wellbeing. When it is weak, deficiencies lead to a wide range of illnesses and a weak character, drive, and will power. The first three levels are claimed to be equivalent to the nature of the beast and all three of these levels also prevail throughout the animal kingdom. Much of society s ills are the result of an imbalance in the first three chakras. Yogis view development in going from the third level of consciousness to the fourth as the biggest step in human development. The fourth chakra, the heart center, embraces the human element of compassion, the attitude to nurture and give without consideration of the cost to one s self. This center is considered to be the first level of higher consciousness, where the human can experience a true expansion in awareness. Love is born through activity in this center. When the heart chakra is not awakened, greed, selfishness, and ego dominate. The fifth chakra is the center for creative communication through expression. When this center is active, the individual can speak and live a blunt truth, and when it is blocked, that person will feel stifled and unable to be direct and truthful with others. A characteristic of higher consciousness that supposedly manifests with this center is that of clairaudient awareness. The sixth chakra allows for both sides of the coin to be seen and here the dual nature of life is understood in the sums of the polarities rather than simply as right versus wrong. This center is said to be responsible for intuition and clairvoyant abilities. Supernatural abilities are also said to be governed by this center. The seventh chakra is the center for saintly intelligence, and thoughtless awareness where actions are based on concern for the highest good for all. This center is called the thousand-petalled lotus, and it is said to be the seat of universal consciousness where there is a clear realization of how all things are connected. The eighth chakra is the aura, and how it functions is representative of the relationship of all the other chakras. This chakra is said to act both as a shield against illness and calamity and as a source of attraction for events in one s life. Awareness in this center takes one s consciousness beyond the realm of time and space, into the realm where the past, the present, and the future merge. It is said that if an individual lives in the consciousness of this center too long, the world will pass them by. The fully awakened yogi supposedly has the ability to consciously activate any and all chakras in any given combination for achieving the most effective outcome under any given situation. Supposedly normal individuals have one chakra that predominates to establish their primary personality, and over time, this center may change as a personality matures. This growth process is supposedly one of the benefits of some meditation techniques. The Development of a Personal Practice Some systems offer a single meditation with a supposed benefit or range of benefits, and some systems offer a few techniques that vary significantly in their overall effects and benefits. The original parent science of the yoga, called Kundalini Yoga, the Yoga of Awareness, as taught by Yogi Bhajan, has thousands of different meditation techniques. Some are much easier than others to practice, and the approach for the beginner, novice, or intermediate practitioner should be based on what he or she hopes to achieve and how much time and effort he or she wants to commit. The best advice here is to experiment with a variety of techniques and to seek the direct guidance from a well-trained and talented teacher, regardless of the system that is chosen. The Clinical Application of Techniques for Patient Populations All the techniques described earlier are claimed to be of benefit for mental health purposes. However, the evidence presents a challenge because of the relatively poor overall quality of the published clinical trials. Some of the best- and well-designed randomized controlled trials that showed substantial efficacy still require replication by others. However, there is reason to be optimistic as yogis had discovered techniques that are supposedly disorder-specific. These disorders include OCD, depression, generalized anxiety disorder, phobias, bipolar disorders, addictions and impulse control disorders, sleep disorders, ADHD and comorbid disorders, PTSD, schizophrenia, the variants of the personality disorders, the pervasive developmental disorders, and cancer. None of these disorders are new and yogis had recognized these disorders even in ancient times. Individuals who are interested in attempting to treat any of these disorders with meditation techniques should seek the assistance of those who are highly trained both with the specific techniques and the specific disorders. In time, clinical trials will likely test the efficacy of these techniques in welldesigned studies and no doubt compare meditation techniques from different systems in head-to-head trials. Summary The discovery of meditation techniques goes back to the time before the advent of the formal religions. Today, there are at least 5000 different meditation techniques that are known, discovered by the ancient yogis. However, only about six techniques are commonly practiced in the West. While hundreds of different scientific studies have been conducted, the majority have used the Transcendental Meditation technique, the Mindfulness Meditation technique, the Relaxation Response, the Zen Meditation technique, and a variety of Hatha yoga meditation techniques. A recent systematic review of the scientific literature finds that there are many uncertainties about the practice of meditation, the scientific research does not have a common theoretical perspective, the work is characterized by poor methodological quality, and that firm conclusions cannot be drawn about the health effects based on the available evidence. However, since this research is only in its infancy and very little funding has been appropriated for this work, it is not surprising that little can be said about the positive virtues of the work. Nonetheless, there are a number of well-designed trials that show unique and important results. In addition, since there are so many different, highly structured, and complex techniques, along with the deep yogic